The Children Of Ash And Elm: A History Of The Vikings, Price - B

     In the Scandinavian creation myth, the first man and woman were Ash and Elm. In the middle of the first millennium, two events transpired that disrupted the routine of life in Scandinavia. The first was the long collapse of the Roman Empire, which disrupted established trade routes, and the second was a massive volcanic eruption that shrouded the skies with a 'dust veil' that reduced temperatures for decades. This 'Mighty Winter' may have reduced the population by half. The new societies that arose from this chaos were more centralized and militaristic. 

     "There was no single convenient event or factor that set the 'Viking Age' in motion." The urge to seek overseas wealth, along with a desire to expand trade, were linked to the social challenges of providing opportunities for younger men disenfranchised by inheritance laws and minimal marriage prospects in a polygamous society. "Raiding and commerce were two components, almost two varying expressions, of the same phenomenon: the pursuit and consolidation of power, expressed through the acquisition and redistribution of portable wealth." The generally accepted starting point for the raids that terrified the British Isles for centuries is the 793 attack on Lindisfarne. "The Vikings were back the following year, and they knew what they liked: isolated, undefended, but very rich monastic houses." Ireland, Scotland, the Netherlands and France were all attacked. The raids became larger and larger; one in Ireland referred to a 'flotilla'. Starting in 834, they came with hundreds of ships and thousands of men. Seasonal raids evolved into a continuing Viking presence. Coastal attacks led to deeper intrusions, including raids up the Seine to Paris, the Rhine to Aachen and the Thames to London. The Vikings eventually occupied northeastern England, the area known as the Danelaw.

     The Vikings travelled east, as well as west, throughout the Baltic region and down the Volga as far as Constantinople, and even the Silk Road. They went north, founding the Faroe Islands and Iceland. This diaspora brought wealth and a degree of stability and prosperity to Scandinavia. It took a vast number of people at home in Scandinavia to build and supply the warships that travelled far and wide. The vast majority were enslaved and the capture of slaves was a primary objective of the raiders. The overseas Viking presence led to the colonization of the aforementioned Danelaw, the urban centers on Ireland's east coast and Normandy.

     The Vikings were exposed to Christianity even before their raiding began. Christianity eventually took root and did so contemporaneously with the slow consolidation of political entities into states and kingdoms. In the 10th century, Denmark and later Norway began to adopt the new religion. Sweden came much later.  

     In the 10th century, Icelanders accidentally discovered Greenland and sent out colonists. From Greenland, intrepid explorers went to North America, wintered there and fought off unwelcoming locals. Recent discoveries have shown that the Vikings landed in northern Newfoundland. Some believe the Newfoundland site may have been used as a landing place for further exploration for as long as a century.

     "As might be expected, the social, political, economic, and ideological motors that drove the Scandinavian transformation of the eighth to eleventh centuries wound down in different ways, at different times, and paces in different regions." England was unified under William the Conqueror, victor at Hastings, just after the defeat of Harald at Stamford Bridge. Vinland was too far and not sustainable. Greenland was abandoned when the tusks it traded with the continent were replaced by ones from Africa and Asia in the early 15th century. In the end though, the interchange of peoples and ideas, the willingness to accept change and the new religion led to the establishment of a more stable order,  one where raiding was no longer necessary or desirable.