Hadrian And The Triumph Of Rome, Everitt- B

                   Hadrian's place in history has been secured by two accomplishments. He realized that further expansion was unsustainable and set about securing and strengthening the existing borders. And he refreshed and rebuilt Athens, leading it to be the cultural capital of the empire.

                  Born the son of a senator in 76 A.D., he lost his father when he was ten. A relative, Trajan, was appointed his guardian. During his education, he fell in love with the Greek language and its literature. The decade preceding his birth saw the empire face two momentous challenges. A series of revolts and the suicide of Nero meant the "elimination of the imperial system's founding family," and the declaration of an independent Jewish state led to a lengthy war. The Flavian dynasty of Vespasian and his two sons followed Nero, and ruled for three decades.  When Hadrian was 20, Trajan appointed him a tribune in his army, and he was with Trajan when Trajan became emperor in 98 A.D. The new emperor's first action was to attack the Dacians on the north side of the Danube. In a multi-year effort, Trajan triumphed, and created the province of Dacia, the first addition to the empire in fifty years. Hadrian was promoted and placed in defense of the province, and was made a consul in 108 A.D. Four yers later, Trajan attacked Parthia with Hadrian as his chief of staff. They added Armenia and Mesopotamia to the empire, but both were soon in rebellion. Trajan died, and his adopted son Hadrian ascended in 117 A.D. He immediately withdrew from the east to the empire's traditional borders, and permanently suspended the policy of seeking to expand the empire.

               Hadrian's goal was to bring peace and prosperity, and he sought to emulate Augustus' reign after he had prevailed at Actium. He was interested in the legal system and was the first to codify Rome's laws. He initiated massive public improvements in Rome, and traveled to all the reaches of the empire.  In 122 A.D., he went to Britain where he took great interest in a wall to separate the colony from the Picts. He extended Latin rights and Roman citizenship throughout the empire, and in particular to his legionnaires. Judaea, once again, rebelled and the rebellion was emphatically quashed in 135 A.D. with hundreds of thousands of Jews killed, enslaved, and exiled. He passed away in 138 A.D., and was succeeded by Antonius, who governed for two decades. He was a great emperor, a successful soldier and builder, but was never  popular with the people or the Senate. Edward Gibbon admired "his vast and active genius," and his "equity and moderation."  The noted Briton considered Hadrian's rule part "of the happiest era of human history."